History

 

As civilization developed and evolved during the New Stone Age, Kenya became a major migratory route for groups in search of fertile land for food production and grazing. As far back as 2,000 BC, evidence indicates that early tribal groups began experimenting with agriculture and the tending of cattle. The highlands and Rift Valley regions of southern Kenya are especially rich in this early history of human evolution. The first migrants to arrive were pastoral nomads from Ethiopia who moved south to Kenya in search of fertile land to graze their flocks. These Cushites were eventually forced south into central Tanzania as the Kenyan climate changed over the centuries and water became scarce. The Yaaku, or Eastern Cushites, followed a thousand years later and settled in the central region of Kenya. This second wave of nomads marked the beginning of an ongoing influx of different tribal groups drawn to the region's fertile land. In fact, by 100 AD there may have been 1,400 pastoral communities living in the Rift Valley region. Even into the early part of this century, there was much movement within Kenya as competition over land rights dominated the largely agrarian society.

As tribes migrated throughout the valley during this period, they exchanged and developed cultures that are still identifiable in modern tribes today. When trade routes were established in the 17th century, European explorers discovered four basic population groups that continue to exist today: the Hamitic, Nilotic, Nilo-Hamitic, and Bantu. Many of these tribal groups continue to maintain their distinct social structures and traditions despite pressure in modern society to "westernize." Although the Kenyan interior was marked by early and frequent tribal migrations, the coastal region evolved in a very different manner. The rugged terrain of the interior was a natural barrier isolating the coast from tribal activity. Coastal inhabitants, therefore, were greatly influenced by Arabs and Persians who came to the East African coast to trade. Another critical influence on the coastal communities was the assimilation of religious refugees. Divisions within Islam forced Arab immigrants to search for a new homeland and many found safety on the coast of Kenya. Much of the distinctive architecture, narrow streets, and numerous mosques that characterize Kenyan coastal cities today have their roots in this immigrant influence. From the 8th century onward, the coast was regularly visited by Arabs and Persians who imported glass, textiles, and wine and exported ivory, rhinoceros horn and slaves. The Swahili civilization continued to thrive and the coastal towns quickly evolved into wealthy city-states ruled by sultans. Although this wealth was based on trade goods from the Kenyan interior, no attempt had been made at this point in history to conquer land or create settlements anywhere beyond the confines of the coastal region. Near the end of the 15th century the first Europeans arrived on the Kenyan coast. In 1498, the Portuguese explorer Vasco de Gama stumbled upon the East African coast in search of China. De Gama was initially rejected by the sultan at Mombasa although his bitter rival, the sultan of Malindi welcomed the explorers. The new immigrants did not settle in quietly, however, and within a few years the Portuguese had looted and ransacked several Swahili cities.

The Portuguese remained on the East African coast for 200 years with well established trading posts. These newest immigrants spent their time trading gold from the interior and exporting slaves to work on the plantations in North America and East Indies. Portuguese rule was harsh, unpopular, and economically debilitating for the local people.

Throughout the 17th century, the Arabs attempted to reestablish links with their East African outposts. This led to an ongoing series of confrontations with the Portuguese to establish dominance. The Omani ships prevailed and by the early 1700s, the Portuguese had been routed completely. By 1720, the last remaining Portuguese left for good, leaving the East African coast again under Arab control. Other than a cross overlooking the sea near Mombasa, virtually no other trace of the hated Portuguese rule remains today.

The 18th century brought an emphasis on rebuilding the cities and reestablishing the once thriving trade routes. Under the leadership of the Sultan of Oman, Seyyid Said, the Arabs worked to regain economic and political supremacy over the region. The island of Zanzibar quickly became the center of a very lucrative trade in slaves and ivory from the interior and spices from the island itself. During this time, Arab slavers moved into the interior of Kenya with the primary goal of exploiting rivalries between local tribes. The Arabs encouraged the powerful groups to conquer their weaker neighbors and sell them into slavery. The slaves were then forced to the coast and on to Zanzibar to be traded. Both ivory and slaves were hugely profitable and Zanzibar grew rich on the trade. This pattern continued despite the public outrage in Europe demanding an end to all slave trade. Eventually, the British brought their forceful anti-slavery message directly to the Sultan as they established a consulate at his court. After years of pressure, the Sultan finally relented and agreed to ban slavery in 1847.

By the mid-19th century, European interest in Kenya focused primarily on abolishing the slave trade and discovering the source of the Nile River. This period of exploration was characterized by Europeans as the Golden Age of Exploration. Between 1840 and 1880, famous names such as Livingstone, Stanley, Burton, and Speke mapped and recorded the interior of Africa. For the first time, Europeans witnessed first-hand the unique beauty of Kenya and recorded it for history. The European governments, however, displayed no serious interest in the reports as the land appeared hostile and unproductive. At this stage, there was no incentive to occupy the newly discovered lands. The end of the 19th century brought a change in this attitude. Bismark, the leader of Germany, expressed a desire to join his other European neighbors in securing a portion of the new land. During this period of international rivalry, often dubbed the "Scramble for Africa," the European powers all laid claim to African territories. The various claims of the nations were settled at the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885. At this time, most of the continent of Africa was divided into colonies: France claimed the majority of West Africa; Germany received much of the eastern territory that is now Tanzania; Belgium got the Congo region; Portugal retained control of Mozambique and Angola; and Britain received the remainder of the continent. Africans were not invited to attend the conference and therefore received not even an acre of their own land.

Kenya gained independence from England in 1963, following a so-called Mau Mau rebellion (even though there is no tribe of that name.) Jomo Kenyatta was Kenya's first president. Like Nelson Mandela of South Africa, Kenyatta was elected after being released from jail. In 1975 many of the names of places in Kenya changed, resorting to their original, by presidential decree. Lake Rudolf, for example, was renamed Lake Turkana. With Kenyatta's death in 1978 came Daniel Arap Moi, a member of the Tugen tribe. Moi's rule was characterized by nepotism, rifts and dissension. He took criticism badly and as a result oversaw the disbanding of tribal societies, disrupted universities and harassed opposition politicians. A coup attempt by the Kenyan Air Force in 1982 was put down by forces loyal to Moi. With the winds of democratic pluralism sweeping Africa in the late 1980s and early 1990s, international aid for Moi's Kenya was suspended.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank and major aid donors demanded that repression cease and Moi's political stranglehold ease. He conceded ground, but much to his delight, the opposition in the 1993 election shot itself in the foot. The Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD) was unable to agree on a leader. By splitting into three parties, FORD's much-vaunted cause became hopeless. Moi, the beneficiary of his opposition's vanity, won with just one-third of the vote.

In 1995, a new party was launched in an attempt to unite the splintered opposition. The party was Safina, founded by Richard Leakey, famed anthropologist, elephant savior and political activist. Elections were held in Kenya at the end of 1997. Despite widespread allegations of vote rigging and considerable intimidation of opposition candidates, Moi and KANU once again scraped home with a little over 40% of the vote. Although Moi promised to rid the government of corruption this was met by an air of resignation in the country, with Kenyans sitting tight until the day when he retired. In 2002 Moi decided to retire on very generous retirement benefits. At the peaceful December 2002 elections, KANU was routed by the National Rainbow Coalition, led my Mwai Kibaki. This has brought about a feeling of new optimism in the country.

As Africa was the arena for early human evolution, a wealth of fossil evidence and stone tools were discovered by the infamous Leakey family. Most recently (1996) Dr. Meave Leakey, head of paleontology at the Nairobi Museum, found four million year old leg bones in the badlands south of Lake Turkana that are the oldest evidence of an upright, bipedal ancestor. Sites with stone tools are accessible to the public, including Olorgesallie, less than two hours drive south of Nairobi. Truly ancient ancestral bones, some 17 million years old, were preserved by volcanic muds on Rusinga Island, Lake Victoria. The chemicals in the volcanic mud of Rusinga and Mfangano Islands were such perfect preservatives that fossilized insects, including locust with their tiny legs and antennae, were recovered, along with butterfly cocoons, a small bird, with delicate impressions of its feathers, and details such as the tiny earbone of the small ape with a large brain known as Proconsul.